Expert consensus on the treatment of oral diseases in pregnant women and infants
Xiao, J. et al. Prenatal oral health care and early childhood caries prevention: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Caries Res. 53, 411–421 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lee, H. et al. Oral health is an integral part of maternal and child health. J. Public Health Policy 45, 595–601 (2024).
Google Scholar
Iida, H. Oral health interventions during pregnancy. Dent. Clin. North Am. 61, 467–481 (2017).
Google Scholar
Daalderop, L. A. et al. Periodontal disease and pregnancy outcomes: Overview of systematic reviews. JDR Clin. Trans. Res. 3, 10–27 (2018).
Google Scholar
Chaffee, B. W. et al. Maternal oral bacterial levels predict early childhood caries development. J. Dent. Res. 93, 238–244 (2014).
Google Scholar
Bao, J. et al. Clinical practice guidelines for oral health care during pregnancy: a systematic evaluation and summary recommendations for general dental practitioners. Quintessence Int. 53, 362–373 (2022).
Google Scholar
Radwan-Oczko, M. et al. How much do pregnant women know about the importance of oral health in pregnancy? Questionnaire-based survey. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 23, 348 (2023).
Google Scholar
Dolic, O. et al. Caries increment in Bosnian women associated with caries risk factors according to the Cariogram during pregnancy: A four-year longitudinal study. Eur. J. Paediatr. Dent. 23, 69–72 (2022).
Google Scholar
Wu, Y. et al. Association between pica practice, oral health, and cariogenic microorganisms of US pregnant women: A cross-sectional study. Arch. Oral. Biol. 175, 106277 (2025).
Google Scholar
Alnakhli, Z. H. et al. Dental caries, gingivitis, and oral health in pregnant women: An updated review article. Rev. Contemp. Philos. 22, 623–640 (2023).
Deghatipour, M. et al. Effect of oral health promotion interventions on pregnant women dental caries: a field trial. BMC Oral. Health 22, 280 (2022).
Google Scholar
Rakchanok, N. et al. Dental caries and gingivitis among pregnant and non-pregnant women in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Nagoya J. Med. Sci. 72, 43–50 (2010).
Google Scholar
Rocha, J. S. et al. Determinants of dental care attendance during pregnancy: A systematic review. Caries Res. 52, 139–152 (2018).
Google Scholar
Tenenbaum, A. & Azogui-Levy, S. Oral health knowledge, attitudes, practices, and literacy of pregnant women: A scoping review. Oral. Health Prev. Dent. 21, 185–198 (2023).
Google Scholar
Goettems, M. L. et al. Children’s use of dental services: influence of maternal dental anxiety, attendance pattern, and perception of children’s quality of life. Community Dent. Oral. Epidemiol. 40, 451–458 (2012).
Google Scholar
Olak, J. et al. The influence of mothers’ oral health behaviour and perception thereof on the dental health of their children. EPMA J. 9, 187–193 (2018).
Google Scholar
Jahan, S. S. et al. Oral healthcare during pregnancy: its importance and challenges in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 19, 10681 (2022).
Google Scholar
Lee, H. Introducing maternal oral health as global health and public health agenda. Eur. J. Public Health 32, ckac129.257 (2022).
Google Scholar
Beauchemin, M. et al. Implementation of clinical practice guidelines in the health care setting: A concept analysis. ANS Adv. Nurs. Sci. 42, 307–324 (2019).
Google Scholar
Nanci, A. Ten Cate’s Oral Histology, Edition 10: Development, Structure, and Function (Elsevier Health Sciences, 2024).
Sadeghianrizi, A. et al. Craniofacial development in obese adolescents. Eur. J. Orthod. 27, 550–555 (2005).
Google Scholar
Pirinen, S. Endocrine regulation of craniofacial growth. Acta Odontol. Scand. 53, 179–185 (1995).
Google Scholar
Pelin, C. et al. Body height estimation from head and face dimensions: a different method. J. Forensic Sci. 55, 1326–1330 (2010).
Google Scholar
Shrestha, R. et al. Craniometric analysis for estimation of stature in Nepalese population—A study on an autopsy sample. Forensic Sci. Int. 248, 187.e1–187.e6 (2015).
Google Scholar
Flores-Mir, C. et al. Use of skeletal maturation based on hand-wrist radiographic analysis as a predictor of facial growth: a systematic review. Angle Orthod. 74, 118–124 (2004).
Google Scholar
Helm, S. et al. Skeletal maturation of the hand in relation to maximum puberal growth in body height. Tandlaegebladet 75, 1223–1234 (1971).
Google Scholar
Mellion, Z. J. et al. The pattern of facial skeletal growth and its relationship to various common indexes of maturation. Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop. 143, 845–854 (2013).
Google Scholar
Verma, D. et al. Reliability of growth prediction with hand-wrist radiographs. Eur. J. Orthod. 31, 438–442 (2009).
Google Scholar
Vucic, S. et al. Dental development and craniofacial morphology in school-age children. Am. J. Orthod. Dentofac. Orthop. 156, 229–237.e4 (2019).
Google Scholar
Wilkes, C. et al. Prenatal diagnosis of cleft lip and/or palate: What do we tell prospective parents?. Prenat. Diagn. 43, 1310–1319 (2023).
Google Scholar
Sadler, T. W.(ed.) Langman’s Medical Embryology 15th edn (Wolters Kluwer, 2023)
Ooë, T. (eds) Human Tooth and Dental Arch Development (Ishiyaku Publishers, 1981).
Yu, T. et al. Stem cells in tooth development, growth, repair, and regeneration. Curr. Top. Dev. Biol. 115, 187–212 (2015).
Google Scholar
González-Fernández, D. et al. Associations of maternal nutritional status and supplementation with fetal, newborn, and infant outcomes in low-income and middle-income settings: An overview of reviews. Nutrients 16, 3725 (2024).
Google Scholar
Morrison, J. L. & Regnault, T. R. Nutrition in pregnancy: Optimising maternal diet and fetal adaptations to altered nutrient supply. Nutrients 8, 342 (2016).
Google Scholar
Gómez-Roig, M. D. et al. Environmental exposure during pregnancy: Influence on prenatal development and early life: A comprehensive review. Fetal Diagn. Ther. 48, 245–257 (2021).
Google Scholar
Bislev, L. S. et al. Vitamin D and muscle health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J. Bone Miner. Res. 36, 1651–1660 (2021).
Google Scholar
Via, W. F. Jr & Churchill, J. A. Relationship of enamel hypoplasia to abnormal events of gestation and birth. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 59, 702–707 (1959).
Google Scholar
Norén, J. G. Microscopic study of enamel defects in deciduous teeth of infants of diabetic mothers. Acta Odontol. Scand. 42, 153–156 (1984).
Google Scholar
Ye, W. et al. Association between maternal diabetes and neurodevelopmental outcomes in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 202 observational studies comprising 56·1 million pregnancies. Lancet Diab. Endocrinol. 13, 494–504 (2025).
Google Scholar
Corrêa-Faria, P. et al. Developmental defects of enamel in primary teeth: prevalence and associated factors. Int. J. Paediatr. Dent. 23, 173–179 (2013).
Google Scholar
Aagaard, K. et al. The placenta harbors a unique microbiome. Sci. Transl. Med. 6, 237ra65 (2014).
Google Scholar
Finlayson, T. L. et al. Prenatal maternal factors, intergenerational transmission of disease, and child oral health outcomes. Dent. Clin. North Am. 61, 483–518 (2017).
Google Scholar
Yang, E. Y. et al. Periodontal pathogen detection in gingiva/tooth and tongue flora samples from 18- to 48-month-old children and periodontal status of their mothers. Oral. Microbiol. Immunol. 17, 55–59 (2002).
Google Scholar
Yatsunenko, T. et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 486, 222–227 (2012).
Google Scholar
Ferretti, P. et al. Mother-to-Infant Microbial Transmission from Different Body Sites Shapes the Developing Infant Gut Microbiome. Cell Host Microbe 24, 133–145.e5 (2018).
Google Scholar
Argaw-Denboba, A. et al. Paternal microbiome perturbations impact offspring fitness. Nature 629, 652–659 (2024).
Google Scholar
Kaan, A. M. M. et al. Acquisition and establishment of the oral microbiota. Periodontol 2000 86, 123–141 (2021).
Google Scholar
Boustedt, K. et al. Salivary microflora and mode of delivery: a prospective case control study. BMC Oral. Health 15, 155 (2015).
Google Scholar
Zimmermann, P. & Curtis, N. Factors Influencing the Intestinal Microbiome During the First Year of Life. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 37, e315–e335 (2018).
Google Scholar
Smaill, F. M. & Grivell, R. M. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 10, CD007482 (2014).
Gomez-Arango, L. F. et al. Antibiotic treatment at delivery shapes the initial oral microbiome in neonates. Sci. Rep. 7, 43481 (2017).
Google Scholar
Cabrera-Rubio, R. et al. The human milk microbiome changes over lactation and is shaped by maternal weight and mode of delivery. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96, 544–551 (2012).
Google Scholar
Toscano, M. et al. Impact of delivery mode on the colostrum microbiota composition. BMC Microbiol 17, 205 (2017).
Google Scholar
Costello, E. K. et al. Microbiome assembly across multiple body sites in low-birthweight infants. mBio 4, e00782–13 (2013).
Google Scholar
Chu, D. M. et al. Maturation of the infant microbiome community structure and function across multiple body sites and in relation to mode of delivery. Nat. Med. 23, 314–326 (2017).
Google Scholar
Drell, T. et al. The Influence of Different Maternal Microbial Communities on the Development of Infant Gut and Oral Microbiota. Sci. Rep. 7, 9940 (2017).
Google Scholar
Rodríguez, J. M. The origin of human milk bacteria: is there a bacterial entero-mammary pathway during late pregnancy and lactation?. Adv. Nutr. 5, 779–784 (2014).
Google Scholar
Andreas, N. J. et al. Human breast milk: A review on its composition and bioactivity. Early Hum. Dev. 91, 629–635 (2015).
Google Scholar
Al-Shehri, S. S. et al. Breastmilk-Saliva Interactions Boost Innate Immunity by Regulating the Oral Microbiome in Early Infancy. PLoS One 10, e0135047 (2015).
Google Scholar
Kageyama, S. et al. High-level acquisition of maternal oral bacteria in formula-fed infant oral microbiota. mBio 13, e03452–21 (2022).
Google Scholar
Galazzo, G. et al. Development of the microbiota and associations with birth mode, diet, and atopic disorders in a longitudinal analysis of stool samples, collected from infancy through early childhood. Gastroenterology 158, 1584–1596 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kononen, E. Development of oral bacterial flora in young children. Ann. Med. 32, 107–112 (2000).
Google Scholar
Pessoa, L. & Galvão, V. Clinical aspects of congenital syphilis with Hutchinson’s triad. BMJ Case Rep. 2011, bcr1120115130 (2011).
Google Scholar
Jedeon, K. et al. Estrogen and bisphenol A affect male rat enamel formation and promote ameloblast proliferation. Endocrinology 155, 3365–3375 (2014).
Google Scholar
Saadaoui, M. et al. Oral microbiome and pregnancy: A bidirectional relationship. J. Reprod. Immunol. 145, 103293 (2021).
Google Scholar
de Jonge, L. et al. Antibiotics prescribed before, during and after pregnancy in the Netherlands: a drug utilization study. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 23, 60–68 (2014).
Google Scholar
Wormser, G. P. et al. How safe is doxycycline for young children or for pregnant or breastfeeding women?. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 93, 238–242 (2019).
Google Scholar
Abadie, R. B. et al. Review of Teratogenic Effects of Leflunomide, Accutane, Thalidomide, Warfarin, Tetracycline, and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors. Cureus 15, e50465 (2023).
Google Scholar
Jacobsen, P. E. et al. Developmental enamel defects in children prenatally exposed to anti-epileptic drugs. PLoS One 8, e58213 (2013).
Google Scholar
Leite, G. A. et al. Exposure to lead exacerbates dental fluorosis. Arch. Oral. Biol. 56, 695–702 (2011).
Google Scholar
Salmela, E. et al. Combined effect of fluoride and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p- dioxin on mouse dental hard tissue formation in vitro. Arch. Toxicol. 85, 953–963 (2011).
Google Scholar
Sahlberg, C. et al. Combined effect of amoxicillin and sodium fluoride on the structure of developing mouse enamel in vitro. Arch. Oral. Biol. 58, 1155–1164 (2013).
Google Scholar
Morkmued, S. et al. Retinoic acid excess impairs amelogenesis inducing enamel defects. Front. Physiol. 7, 673 (2017).
Google Scholar
Henning, P. et al. Retinoid receptors in bone and their role in bone remodeling. Front. Endocrinol. 6, 31 (2015).
Google Scholar
Till, C. et al. Health risks and benefits of fluoride exposure during pregnancy and infancy. Annu. Rev. Public Health 46, 253–274 (2025).
Google Scholar
Varayoud, J. et al. Long-lasting effects of neonatal bisphenol A exposure on the implantation process. Vitam. Horm. 94, 253–275 (2014).
Google Scholar
Perng, W. et al. Early life exposure in Mexico to environmental toxicants (ELEMENT) project. BMJ Open 9, e030427 (2019).
Google Scholar
Suwannakul, B. et al. Organophosphate pesticide exposures in early and late pregnancy influence different aspects of infant developmental performance. Toxics 9, 99 (2021).
Google Scholar
Gunier, R. B. et al. Determinants of manganese in prenatal dentin of shed teeth from CHAMACOS children living in an agricultural community. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 11249–11257 (2013).
Google Scholar
Arora, M. et al. Determining fetal manganese exposure from mantle dentine of deciduous teeth. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46, 5118–5125 (2012).
Google Scholar
Wu, H. et al. A metabolomic study on the association of exposure to heavy metals in the first trimester with primary tooth eruption. Sci. Total Environ. 723, 138107 (2020).
Google Scholar
Rohilla, M. Etiology of various dental developmental anomalies: Review of literature. J. Dent. Probl. Solut. 4, 19–25 (2017).
Google Scholar
McKinney, et al. Developmental disturbances of the teeth, anomalies of shape and size. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing (2025).
Niederman, R. Pregnancy gingivitis and causal inference. Evid. Based Dent. 14, 107–108 (2013).
Google Scholar
Macpherson, A. J. & Uhr, T. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science 303, 1662–1665 (2004).
Google Scholar
Jeurink, P. V. et al. Human milk: a source of more life than we imagine. Benef. Microbes 4, 17–30 (2013).
Google Scholar
Madianos, P. N. et al. Adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) and periodontal disease: pathogenic mechanisms. J. Periodontol. 84, S170–S180 (2013).
Google Scholar
Xu, B. & Han, Y. W. Oral bacteria, oral health, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Periodontol 2000 89, 181–189 (2022).
Google Scholar
González-Jaranay, M. et al. Periodontal status during pregnancy and postpartum. PLoS One 12, e0178234 (2017).
Google Scholar
Hashim, R. Self-reported oral health, oral hygiene habits and dental service utilization among pregnant women in United Arab Emirates. Int. J. Dent. Hyg. 10, 142–146 (2012).
Google Scholar
Ibhawoh, L. & Enabulele, J. Endodontic treatment of the pregnant patient: Knowledge, attitude and practices of dental residents. Niger. Med. J. 56, 311–316 (2015).
Google Scholar
Koyuncuoglu, C. Z. et al. Rational use of medicine in dentistry: do dentists prescribe antibiotics in appropriate indications?. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 73, 1027–1032 (2017).
Google Scholar
Aliabadi, T. et al. Antibiotic use in endodontic treatment during pregnancy: A narrative review. Eur. J. Transl. Myol. 32, 10813 (2022).
Google Scholar
Tripathi, R. Incidence of pericoronitis and impacted 3rd molar in pregnant patients visiting dental OPD. Int. J. Adv. Res. 4, 1737–1741 (2016).
Google Scholar
McArdle, L. W. et al. Diseases associated with mandibular third molar teeth. Br. Dent. J. 224, 434–440 (2018).
Google Scholar
Albalbisi, A. et al. Review etiology, evaluation, and treatment of pericoronitis. J. Healthc. Sci. 2, 457–462 (2022).
American Dental Association. Oral health topics: pregnancy (2019). Available at: https://www.ada.org/en/member-center/oral-health-topics/pregnancy.
Committee Opinion No. 569 Oral health care during pregnancy and through the lifespan. Obstet. Gynecol. 122, 417–422 (2013).
Google Scholar
European Federation of Periodontology. The Relationship between Oral Health and Pregnancy: Recommendations for women (2020). Available at: https://www.efp.org/fileadmin/uploads/efp/Documents/Campaigns/Oral_Health_and_Pregnancy/Guidelines/guidelines-women.pdf
Horowitz, A. M. et al. Obstetric Providers’ Role in Prenatal Oral Health Counseling and Referral. Am. J. Health Behav. 43, 1162–1170 (2019).
Google Scholar
Sant’Ana, A. C. et al. Periodontal treatment during pregnancy decreases the rate of adverse pregnancy outcome: a controlled clinical trial. J. Appl. Oral. Sci. 19, 130–136 (2011).
Google Scholar
Wasylko, L. et al. A review of common dental treatments during pregnancy: implications for patients and dental personnel. J. Can. Dent. Assoc. 64, 434–439 (1998).
Google Scholar
Paglia, L. & Colombo, S. Perinatal oral health: focus on the mother. Eur. J. Paediatr. Dent. 20, 209–213 (2019).
Google Scholar
Ather, A. et al. Pharmacotherapy during Pregnancy: An Endodontic Perspective. J. Endod. 46, 1185–1194 (2020).
Google Scholar
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Report No. 145: Radiation Protection in Dentistry (NCRP, 2003).
European Commission. Radiation Protection No. 136: European Guidelines on Radiation Protection in Dental Radiology (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2004).
Canada Dental Association. CDA Position on Control of X-Radiation in Dentistry (2005). Available at: https://www.cda-adc.ca/_files/position_statements/xradiation.pdf
White, S. C. & Pharoah, M. J. Oral Radiology: Principles and Interpretation 8th edn (Mosby Elsevier, 2018).
National Radiological Protection Board. Guidance Notes for Dental Practitioners on the Safe Use of X-Ray Equipment (Department of Health, 2001).
Environmental Health Directorate, Canada. Safety Code 30: Radiation Protection in Dentistry (Minister of Health, 2000)
Guo, X. L. et al. [Standards and guidelines of radiation protection and safety in dental X-ray examinations]. Zhonghua Kou Qiang Yi Xue Za Zhi 52, 762–772 (2017).
Google Scholar
Gamba, T. O. et al. Impact of dental imaging on pregnant women and recommendations for fetal radiation safety: A systematic review. Imaging Sci. Dent. 54, 1–11 (2024).
Google Scholar
Lin, Z. et al. Expert consensus on imaging diagnosis and analysis of early correction of childhood malocclusion. Int. J. Oral. Sci. 17, 21 (2025).
Google Scholar
Tanna, N. K. et al. Imaging in orthodontics. Dent. Clin. North Am. 65, 623–641 (2021).
Google Scholar
Oenning, A. C. et al. Cone-beam CT in paediatric dentistry: DIMITRA project position statement. Pediatr. Radiol. 48, 308–316 (2018).
Google Scholar
Enabulele, J. & Ibhawoh, L. Resident obstetricians’ awareness of the oral health component in management of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 14, 388 (2014).
Google Scholar
Little, J. W. et al. Dental Management of the Medically Compromised Patient 10th edn (Mosby Elsevier, 2023).
Fayans, E. P. et al. Local anesthetic use in the pregnant and postpartum patient. Dent. Clin. North Am. 54, 697–713 (2010).
Google Scholar
Lin, K. J. et al. Maternal exposure to amoxicillin and the risk of oral clefts. Epidemiology 23, 699–705 (2012).
Google Scholar
Puhó, E. H. et al. Drug treatment during pregnancy and isolated orofacial clefts in Hungary. Cleft Palate Craniofac. J. 44, 194–202 (2007).
Google Scholar
Gottberg, B. et al. Prenatal effects by exposing to amoxicillin on dental enamel in Wistar rats. Med. Oral. Patol. Oral. Cir. Bucal 19, e38–e43 (2014).
Google Scholar
Kenyon, S. et al. Antibiotics for preterm rupture of membranes. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 12, CD001058 (2013).
Oberoi, S. S. et al. Antibiotics in dental practice: how justified are we. Int. Dent. J. 65, 4–10 (2015).
Google Scholar
Sá del Fiol, F. et al. Antibiotics and pregnancy. Pharmazie 60, 483–493 (2005).
Google Scholar
Marcos, Z. Arriving too early. Lancet Neurol. 12, 332–333 (2013).
Google Scholar
Lawn, J. E. et al. Born too soon: accelerating actions for prevention and care of 15 million newborns born too soon. Reprod. Health 10, S6 (2013).
Google Scholar
Chang, H. H. et al. Preventing preterm births: analysis of trends and potential reductions with interventions in 39 countries with very high human development index. Lancet 381, 223–234 (2013).
Google Scholar
Soilly, A. L. et al. Economic analysis of the costs associated with prematurity from a literature review. Public Health 128, 43–62 (2014).
Google Scholar
Gutierrez Gossweiler, A. & Martinez-Mier, E. A. Chapter 6: Vitamins and Oral Health. Monogr. Oral. Sci. 28, 59–67 (2020).
Google Scholar
Mortensen, N. B. et al. Vitamin D status and tooth enamel hypomineralization are not associated in 4-y-old children: An Odense Child. Cohort study J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 221, 106130 (2022).
Google Scholar
Rosier, B. T. et al. Resilience of the Oral Microbiota in Health: Mechanisms That Prevent Dysbiosis. J. Dent. Res. 97, 371–380 (2018).
Google Scholar
Zhou, F. et al. The association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and dental caries in US adults. Oral. Dis. 26, 1537–1547 (2020).
Google Scholar
Mahmood, M. K. et al. Association between vitamin D levels and dental caries: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cross-sectional studies. Appl. Sci. 13, 9883 (2023).
Google Scholar
Hujoel, P. P. Vitamin D and dental caries in controlled clinical trials: systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr. Rev. 71, 88–97 (2013).
Google Scholar
Nørrisgaard, P. E. et al. Association of High-Dose Vitamin D Supplementation During Pregnancy With the Risk of Enamel Defects in Offspring: A 6-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Pediatr. 173, 924–930 (2019).
Google Scholar
Dudding, T. et al. Re-Examining the Association between Vitamin D and Childhood Caries. PLoS One 10, e0143769 (2015).
Google Scholar
Herzog, K. et al. Association of vitamin D and dental caries in children: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005–2006. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 147, 413–420 (2016).
Google Scholar
Anunciação, B. H. et al. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of prenatal care practitioners regarding oral health in pregnancy—A systematic review. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 162, 449–461 (2023).
Google Scholar
Jakovljevic, A. et al. The association between apical periodontitis and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review. Int. Endod. J. 54, 1527–1537 (2021).
Google Scholar
Perinatal and Infant Oral Health Care. Pediatr. Dent. 39, 208–212 (2017).
Kessler, J. L. A Literature Review on Women’s Oral Health Across the Life Span. Nurs. Women’s. Health 21, 108–121 (2017).
Google Scholar
Wu, M. et al. Relationship between gingival inflammation and pregnancy. Mediators Inflamm. 2015, 623427 (2015).
Google Scholar
Kaan, A. M. & Zaura, E. Oral Microbiome Transmission and Infant Feeding Habits. mBio 13, e0032522 (2022).
Google Scholar
Brahm, P. & Valdés, V. Beneficios de la lactancia materna y riesgos de no amamantar. Rev. Chil. Pediatr. 88, 7–14 (2017).
Google Scholar
Peres, K. G. et al. Exclusive Breastfeeding and Risk of Dental Malocclusion. Pediatrics 136, e60–e67 (2015).
Google Scholar
Borrie, F. Breastfeeding and occlusal development. Evid. Based Dent. 19, 5 (2018).
Google Scholar
Sum, F. H. et al. Association of breastfeeding and three-dimensional dental arch relationships in primary dentition. BMC Oral. Health 15, 30 (2015).
Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Breastfeeding. Available at: https://www.who.int/health-topics/breastfeeding#tab=tab_1
Peres, K. G. et al. Effects of breastfeeding and sucking habits on malocclusion in a birth cohort study. Rev. Saude Publica 41, 343–350 (2007).
Google Scholar
Narbutytė, I. et al. Relationship between breastfeeding, bottle-feeding and development of malocclusion. Stomatologija 15, 67–72 (2013).
Google Scholar
Chen, X. et al. Effects of breast-feeding duration, bottle-feeding duration and non-nutritive sucking habits on the occlusal characteristics of primary dentition. BMC Pediatr. 15, 46 (2015).
Google Scholar
Pires, S. C. et al. Influence of the duration of breastfeeding on quality of muscle function during mastication in preschoolers: a cohort study. BMC Public Health 12, 934 (2012).
Google Scholar
Ling, H. T. B. et al. The association between nutritive, non-nutritive sucking habits and primary dental occlusion. BMC Oral. Health 18, 145 (2018).
Google Scholar
Aarts, C. et al. Breastfeeding patterns in relation to thumb sucking and pacifier use. Pediatrics 104, e50 (1999).
Google Scholar
Sexton, S. & Natale, R. Risks and benefits of pacifiers. Am. Fam. Physician 79, 681–685 (2009).
Google Scholar
Comina, E. et al. Pacifiers: a microbial reservoir. Nurs. Health Sci. 8, 216–223 (2006).
Google Scholar
Agarwal, S. S. et al. Association between breastfeeding duration, non-nutritive sucking habits and dental arch dimensions in deciduous dentition: a cross-sectional study. Prog. Orthod. 15, 59 (2014).
Google Scholar
link
